Jump to content

Silent Valley National Park: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
clean
+ref
Line 74: Line 74:


=== Climate===
=== Climate===
Silent Valley gets copious amounts of [[Precipitation (meteorology)|rainfall]] during the [[monsoon]]s, but the actual amount varies within the region due the varied topography. In general the rainfall is higher at higher altitude and decreases from the west to east due to the [[rain shadow]] effect. Eighty per cent of the rainfall occurs during the south-west monsoon between June and September. It also receives significant amount of rainfall during the north-east monsoon between October and November. The mean annual rainfall ranges from over 5000 mm in the [[Neelikal]] area in the west to around 3200 mm on the eastern side of the park. The mean annual temperature is 20.2<sup>o</sup> C. The hottest months are April and May when the mean temperature is 23<sup>o</sup> C and the coolest months are January and February when the mean temperature is 18<sup>o</sup> C. Because of the high rainfall, the [[relative humidity]] is consistently high (above 95%) between June and December.<ref name="UNEP">Same as before</ref>
Silent Valley gets copious amounts of [[Precipitation (meteorology)|rainfall]] during the [[monsoon]]s, but the actual amount varies within the region due the varied topography. The mean annual rainfall ranges from over 5000 mm in the [[Neelikal]] area in the west to around 3200 mm on the eastern side of the park. The park being completely enclosed within a ring of hills, has its own [[micro-climate]] and probably receives some [[convectional rainfall]], in addition to rain from two monsoons. In general the rainfall is higher at higher altitude and decreases from the west to east due to the [[rain shadow]] effect. Eighty per cent of the rainfall occurs during the south-west monsoon between June and September. It also receives significant amount of rainfall during the north-east monsoon between October and November.<ref>Asian Nature Conservation Foundation (2006 )NILAMBUR-SILENT VALLEY-COIMBATORE, PERSPECTIVE FOR THE RESERVE, retrieved 3/26/2007[http://asiannature.org/nilambur.php PERSPECTIVE FOR THE RESERVE]</ref>
The mean annual temperature is 20.2<sup>o</sup> C. The hottest months are April and May when the mean temperature is 23<sup>o</sup> C and the coolest months are January and February when the mean temperature is 18<sup>o</sup> C. Because of the high rainfall, the [[relative humidity]] is consistently high (above 95%) between June and December.<ref name="UNEP">Same as before</ref>

== Tribes ==
== Tribes ==
{{Expert-subject|Ethnic groups
{{Expert-subject|Ethnic groups

Revision as of 23:43, 26 March 2007

File:Evergreen forests of Silent Valley at SairandhriC.jpg
Silent Valley National Park
Silent Valley NP is located in India
Silent Valley NP
Silent Valley NP
Silent Valley NP (India)
Map
LocationPalakkad District, Kerala
Nearest cityPalakkad,
Area89.52 km²
Established26 December, 1980
Visitors10,000 (in 2004)
Governing bodyKerala Forest Dept.

Silent Valley National Park (89.52 km²) is located in the Nilgiri Hills, Palakkad district, Kerala, in South India.
The park is one of the last undisturbed tracts of South Western Ghats montane rain forests and tropical moist evergreen forest in India.
The park is contiguous with the proposed Karimpuzha National Park (225 km²) to the north and Mukurthi National Park (78.46 km²) to the north-east.
It is the core of the Nilgiri International Biosphere Reserve (1,455.4 km²) and is part of
The Western Ghats World Heritage Site, Nilgiri Sub-Cluster (6,000+ km²) under consideration by UNESCO.[1]

The visitors' center for the park is at Sairandhri.

History

The area is locally known as "Sairandhrivanam" Literally, in Malayalam: Sairandhri's Valley. In local Hindu legend, Sairandhri is Draupadi, the polyandrous wife of the five Pandavas, who disguised herself as Sairandhri, queen Sudeshna's assistant, while they were in exile.[2], Listen to the legend about Sairandhri [3]. The Pandavas, deprived of their kingdom, set out on a 13-year exile. They wandered south, into what is now Kerala, deeper and deeper into its forests, until one day they came upon a magical valley where rolling grasslands dipped into wooded ravines, where a deep green river bubbled its course through impenetrable forest, where at dawn and twilight the tiger and elephant would drink together at the water's edge, where all was harmonious and man unknown. Beside that river, in a cave on a hill slope, the Pandavas halted.[4]

The first English exploration and investigation of the watersheds of the Silent Valley area was in 1847.The British named the area Silent Valley because of a perceived absence of noisy Cicadas. Another story attributes the name to the anglicisation of Sairandhri. A third story, refers to the presence there of many Lion-Tailed Macaques Macaca silenus.[5]. In 1914 the forest of the Silent Valley area was declared a Reserve Forest, however, from 1927 to 1976 portions of the Silent Valley forest area were subjected to forestry operations. In 1928 the location on the Kunthipuzha River at Sairandhri was identified as an ideal site for electricity generation and in 1958 a study and survey of the area was conducted and a hydroelectric project of 120 MV costing Rs. 17 Crore was proposed by the Kerala State Electricity Board.

In 1973 the valley became the focal point of "Save Silent Valley", India's fiercest environmental debate of the decade, when the Kerala State Electricity Board decided to implement the Silent Valley Hydro-Electric Project (SVHEP) centered on a dam across the Kunthipuzha River. The resulting reservoir would flood 8.3 km² of virgin rainforest. Though a shortage of funds delayed activity, from 1974 to 1975 large number of big trees in the area were cut down. The National Committee on Environmental Planning and Co-ordination (NCEPC) studied the proposal for the hydro project and suggested 17 safeguards to be implemented in case the project continued.

In 1976 the Kerala State Electricity Board announced plans to begin dam construction and the issue was brought to public attention. Romulus Whitaker, founder of the Madras Snake Park and the Madras Crocodile Bank, was probably the first person to draw public attention to the small and remote area.[6] In 1977 the Kerala Forest Research Institute carried out an Ecological Impact study of the Silent Valley area and proposed that the area be declared a Biosphere Reserve.

The Lion-tailed Macaque ranks among the rarest and most threatened primates

In 1978 Smt. Indira Gandhi, the Honorable Prime Minister of India, approved the project, with the condition that the State Government enact Legislation ensuring the necessary safeguards. Also that year the IUCN (Ashkhabad, USSR, 1978) passed a Resolution recommending protection of Lion-tailed Macaques in Silent Valley and Kalakkad and the controversy heated up. In 1979 the Government of Kerala passed Legislation regarding the Silent Valley Protection Area (Protection of Ecological balance Act of 1979) and issued a notification declaring the exclusion of the Hydroelectric Project Area from the proposed National Park.

Dr. Salim Ali, eminent ornithologist, visited the Valley and appealed for cancellation of the Hydroelectric Project. Kerala Sasthra Sahithya Parishath published a Techno-economic and Socio-Political assessment report on the Silent Valley Hydroelectric project. A petition of writ was filed before the High Court of Kerala, against the clear cutting of forests in the Hydroelectric Project area and the court ordered a stop to the clear cutting. Dr. M.S. Swaminathan, the renowned Agricultural Scientist, and then Secretary to the Department of Agriculture, visited the Silent Valley area and suggested that 389.52 km² including Silent Valley forests (89.52 km²), New Amarambalam Reserve (80 km²) and Attappadi Reserve forest (120 km²) in Kerala and the Kunda forests in Tamilnadu (100 km²), should be developed into a National Rainforest Biosphere Reserve, with the aim of "preventing erosion of valuable genes from the area".[7]

In January 1980 the Hon. High Court of Kerala lifted the ban on clear cutting, but then the Hon. Prime Minister of India requested the Government of Kerala to stop further works in the project area until all aspects were fully discussed. In December, the Government of Kelala declared the Silent Valley area, excluding the Hydroelectric Project area, as a National Park.

In 1982 a multidisciplinary committee with Prof. M. G. K. Menon as chairman, was created to decide if the Hydroelectric Project was feasible without any significant ecological damage. Early in 1983, Prof. Menon's Committee submitted its report. After a careful study of the Menon report, the Hon. Prime Minister of India decided to abandon the Project. On October 31, 1984 Indira Gandhi was assassinated and on November 15 the Silent Valley forests were declared as a National Park, though the boundaries of the Silent Valley Park were limited and no buffer zone was created, despite recommendations by expert committees and scientists.

Ten months later, on September 7, 1985 the Silent Valley National Park was formally inaugurated and a memorial at Sairandhri to Indira Gandhi was unveiled by Shri. Rajiv Gandhi, the new Hon. Prime Minister of India. On September 1, 1986 Silent Valley National Park was designated as the core area of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.

Since then, a long-term conservation effort has been undertaken to preserve the Silent Valley ecosystem.[8]

In 2001 a new Hydro project was proposed and the "Man vs. Monkey debate" was revived. The proposed site of the dam (64.5 m high and 275 m long) is just 3.5 km downstream of the old dam site at Sairandhiri, 500 m outside the National Park boundary.[9]. The 84 km² catchment of the project area included 79 km² of the Silent Valley National Park.

Silent Valley National Park
Topography 1:250,000., 1959

The Kerala Minister for Electricity called The Pathrakkadavu dam (PHEP) an "eco-friendly alternative" to the old Silent Valley project. The PHEP was designed as a run-off-the-river project with an installed capacity of 70 MW in the first phase (105 MW eventually) and an energy generation of 214 million units (Mu) with a minimal gross storage of 0.872 million cubic metres. The claim was that the submergence area of the PHEP would be a negligible .041 km² compared to 8.30 km² submergence of the 1970s (SVHEP).[10]. During January to May 2003 a rapid Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) was carried out during by the Thiruvananthapuram-based Environmental Resources Research Centre and its report was released in December, stating that forest lost due to the project would be just .2216 km², not including the 7.4 km approach road and land to be acquired for the powerhouse in Karapadam. Little more was heard till Nov. 15, 2006 when Kerala Minister for Forest Binoy Viswam said that the proposed buffer zone for Silent Valley would be declared soon.[11].

On Feb 21, 2007 Chief Minister A. K. Antony told reporters after a cabinet meeting that "when the Silent Valley proposal was dropped, the centre had promised to give clearance to the Pooyamkutty project. This promise, however, had not been honoured. The Kerala government has not taken any decision on reviving the Silent Valley Hydel Project".[12]


"Only An Axe Away" is a well-researched film documentary on the struggle to preserve the Silent Valley. The film shares the anxiety of the people of Kerala about the future of the Silent Valley. Producer: Third Eye Communications, Director: P. Baburaj and C. Saratchandran, Malayalam/40min/2004/DV.[13]

Geography

Silent Valley from JPL Map server

Silent Valley is rectangular, 7 km (east-west) X 12 km (north-south). It is located between 11o03’ to 11o13’ N latitude and 76o21’ to 76o35’ E longitude. It is separated from the eastern and northern high altitude plateaus of the (Nilgiris Mountains) by high continuous ridges. The park gradually slopes southward down to the Palakkad plains and to the west it is bounded by irregular ridges. The altitude of the park ranges from 658 m to 2328 m at Anginda peak, but most of the park lies within the altitude range of 880 m to 1200 m. Soils are blackish and slightly acidic in evergreen forests where there is good accumulation of organic matter. The underlying rock in the area is granite with schists and gneiss, which give rise to the loamy laterite soils on slopes.[14]

Rivers

File:Kuntipuzha-river.jpg
Kuntipuzha River
in Silent Valley National Park
near Sairandhri Visitors center

The Kuntipuzha River drains the entire 15km length of the park from north to south into the Bharathapuzha River. Kuntipuzha River divides the park into a narrow eastern sector of width 2 kilometers and a wide western sector of 5 kilometers. The river never turns brown and is always crystal clear, perennial and wild. The main tributaries of the river, kunthancholapuzha, Karingathodu, Madrimaranthodu, Valiaparathodu and Kummaathanthodu originate on the upper slopes of the eastern side of the valley. The river is uniformly shallow, with no flood plains or meanders. Its bed falls from 1,861m to 900m over a distance of 12km, the last 8km being particularly level with a fall of only 60m. Kuntipuzha is one of the less torrential rivers of the Western Ghats, with a pesticide-free catchment area.[15]

Climate

Silent Valley gets copious amounts of rainfall during the monsoons, but the actual amount varies within the region due the varied topography. The mean annual rainfall ranges from over 5000 mm in the Neelikal area in the west to around 3200 mm on the eastern side of the park. The park being completely enclosed within a ring of hills, has its own micro-climate and probably receives some convectional rainfall, in addition to rain from two monsoons. In general the rainfall is higher at higher altitude and decreases from the west to east due to the rain shadow effect. Eighty per cent of the rainfall occurs during the south-west monsoon between June and September. It also receives significant amount of rainfall during the north-east monsoon between October and November.[16]

The mean annual temperature is 20.2o C. The hottest months are April and May when the mean temperature is 23o C and the coolest months are January and February when the mean temperature is 18o C. Because of the high rainfall, the relative humidity is consistently high (above 95%) between June and December.[15]

Tribes

File:Kerala India trees.jpg
Mixed deciduous trees and grasslands in Silent Valley National Park

It is believed the valley has never been settled, even by Hunter-gatherers. The Mudakar (?sp Muduga[17]) tribal people are indigenous to the area and do live in the adjacent valley of Attappady Reserved Forest.[18] Also, the Kurumbar people occupy the highest range bordering on the Nilgiris.[19].
16 out of 21 tribal colonies in the Attappady range are notorious for ganja cultivation. The tribals, who are in abject poverty, are easily won over by the so called ganja mafia, though they work mostly as labourers and transport agents. There is a plan to employ 50 tribals, @ Rs. 500/month, from the 21 tribal settlements as forest guards.[20].

Flora and Fauna

Valley areas of the park are in a Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Ecoregion. Hilly areas above 1,000 m are in a South Western Ghats montane rain forests region. Above 1,500 m, the evergreen forests begin to give way to stunted forests, called sholas, interspersed with open grassland. Both are very important to naturalists, biologists and other researchers because the rich biodiversity here has never been disturbed by human settlements.

Animals

Nilgiri Wood-Pigeon

Several threatened species are endemic here. New plant and animal species are often discovered here.

Birds

Birdlife International lists 16 bird species in Silent Valley as threatened or restricted: Nilgiri Wood-pigeon, Malabar Parakeet, Malabar Grey Hornbill, White-bellied Treepie, Grey-headed Bulbul, Broad-tailed Grassbird, Rufous Babbler, Wynaad Laughing Thrush, Nilgiri Laughing Thrush, White-bellied Shortwing, Black-and-rufous Flycatcher, Nilgiri Flycatcher, White-bellied Blue-flycatcher, Crimson-backed Sunbird and Nilgiri pipit.[21] accessed 3/24/2007

Rare bird species found here include Ceylon Frogmouth and Great Indian Hornbill . The 2006 winter bird survey discovered Long-legged Buzzard, a new species of raptor at Sispara, the park's highest peak. The survey found 10 endangered species recorded in the IUCN Red List including the Red winged crested cuckoo, Malabar Pied Hornbill, Pale harrier. The area is home to 15 endemic species including the Black-and-orange Flycatcher. It recorded 138 species of birds including 17 species that were newly observed in the Silent Valley area. The most abundant bird was the Black bulbul.[22]

Mammals

Gaur, largest of all wild cattle

The threatened mammals at Silent valley include: the Lion-tailed Macaque, Niligiri Langur, Malabar Giant Squirrel, Nilgiri Tahr, Peshwa’s Bat and Hairy-winged Bat which are endemic here.

Distribution and demography of all diurnal primates were studied in Silent Valley National Park and adjacent areas for a period of three years from 1993 to 1996. Fourteen troops of lion-tailed macaque, eighty-five troops of Nilgiri langur, fifteen troops of bonnet macaque and seven troops of Hanuman langur were observed. Of these, the Nilgiri langur was randomly distributed, whereas the lion-tailed macaque troops were confined to the southern sector of the Park. Bonnet macaques and Hanuman langurs were occasional visitors. The Silent Valley forest remains one of the most undisturbed viable habitats left for the endemic and endangered primates lion-tailed macaque and Nilgiri langur.[23]

Female Southern Birdwing (Troides minos) nectaring at Silent Valley

The tiger, leopard (panther), leopard cat, jungle cat, fishing cat, Common Palm Civet, Small Indian Civet, Brown Palm Civet, Ruddy Mongoose, Stripe-necked Mongoose, wild dogs, clawless otter, sloth bear, small travancore flying squirrel, Indian pangolin (scaly anteater), porcupine, wild boar, sambar, spotted deer, barking deer, mouse deer and gaur also live here.

Insects

Over a 100 species of Butterflies and 400 species of moths live here. 7 species of Butterflies were observed migrating in a mixed swarm of thousands of butterflies towards the Silent Valley National Park. In one instance an observer noted several birds attempting to catch these butterflies. The bird species included the Pied Bushchat Saxicola caprata, Nilgiri Pipit Anthus nilghiriensis, Tickell's Warbler Phylloscopus affinis, Greenish Leaf-Warbler Phylloscopus trochiloides and the Oriental White-eye Zosterops palpebrosa.[24]

Plants

DNA, part of a gene

In addition to facilitating recharge of the aquifer, water retension of the catchment basin and preventing soil erosion, every plant in the park from the smallest one celled algae to the largest tree in the forest has unknown potential for benificial innovations in biotechnology.

Genetic resources: Throughout human history about 10% of the genetic stock found in the wild has been bred into palatable and higher yielding cereals, fruits and vegetables. Future food security depends on the preservation of the remaining 90% of the stock through protection of high biodiversity habitats like Silent valley..[25]

The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources of ICAR (India), Plant Exploration and Collection Division[26]has identified Silent Valley as high in bio-diversity and an important Gene Pool resource for Recombinant DNA innovations. An important example of use of wild germplasm is gene selection from the wild varieties of rice Oryza nivara (Central India) and Oryza Pittambi found in Silent Valley for the traits of broad spectrum disease resistance in high yeilding hybrid rice varieties including IR-36, which are responsible for much of the green revolution throughout Asia.[27]

Also, genetic evaluation of plant growth promoting Rhizobacteria obtained from Silent Valley indicated that strain, IISR 331, could increase the growth of black pepper cuttings by 228% and showed 82.7% inhibition of the common plant wilting disease Phytopthora capsici in laboratory tests (in vitro).[28]

Tailed Jay nectoring on a Daisy

Flowering plants: Angiosperm flora currently identified here include 966 species belonging to 134 families and 599 genera. There are 701 Dicotyledons distributed among 113 families and 420 genera. There are 265 Monocotyledons here distributed among 21 families and 139 genera. Families best represented are the Orchidaceae (with 108 species), Poaceae (56), Fabaceae (55), Rubiaceae (49) and Asteraceae (45). Seven new plant species have been recorded from Silent Valley, as well as many rare, endemic and economically valuable species, such as cardamom Ellettaria cardamomum, pepper Piper nigrum, yams Dioscorea spp., beans Phaseolus sp., a pest-resistant strain of rice species unknown, and 110 plant species of importance in Ayurvedic medicine.[29]

Trees: Occurrence of lion-tailed macaque is dependent on the flowering of Cullenia exarillata in the forest.[30]

Six distinct tree associations have been described in the valley [31]. Three are restricted to the southern sector: [(Cullenia exarillata & Palaquium ellipticum)], [(Palaquium ellipticum & Mesua ferrea(Indian rose chestnut)] and [(Mesua ferrea & Calophyllum elatum)]. The remainder are confined to the central and northern parts of the Park: [(Palaquium ellipticum & Poeciloneuron indicum)], [(Calophyllum elatum & Ochlandra sp.)] and [(Poeciloneuron indicum & Ochlandra sp.)].[32]

A study of natural regeneration of 12 important tree species of Silent Valley tropical rain forests showed good natural regeneration of all 12 species. The species studied were Palaquium ellipticum, Cullenia exarillata, Poeciloneuron indicum, Myristica dactyloides, Elaeocarpus glandulosus, Litsea floribunda, Mesua nagassarium, Cinnamomum malabatrum, Agrostistachys meeboldii, Calophyllum polyanthum, Garcinia morella and Actinodaphne campanulata.[33]

Recent selective felling of three trees per acre, has led to the cutting of 48,000 m³ of timber from about 2000 ha.[34]

In 1996, Impatiens sivarajanii, a new species of Balsaminaceae was discovered in the park.[35]

There is a huge hollow Kattualying tree here which can fit 12 people inside.[36]

Threats

  • Forest fire - Fire is one of the major threats facing the forests of Kerala. People engaged in grazing livestock often burn an area to get fresh grass shoots for their cattle, especially during dry season when fire danger is greatest. Also, illicit activities like ganja cultivation, poaching, tree felling, non timber forest products (NTFP) collection and very often careless tourists and pilgrims are responsible for big forest fires.[37] Some extent of the Mesua - Calophyllum tree association areas in the higher reaches are degraded due to previous fire and the area is now fast regenerating.[38]
  • Tourism - It will be ensured that development of tourism in Kerala will not be a threat to wildlife sanctuaries and protected forests. Projects that will be a threat to natural attractions like rare flora and fauna will not be taken up for tourism purposes. Entrance to protected wildlife sanctuaries will be regulated by permitting tourists in small groups.
  • Ganja cultivation - The ganja mafia has cut hundreds of acres of evergreen tropical forest in the Attappady Hills, including Silent Valley buffer zones, for illegal cultivation of the cash crop. The Forest Department had an ambitious plan to root out ganja cultivation from the Attappady forests by April 2006.[20]
  • Construction - Construction activities in environmental sensitive areas will be regulated according to action plans prepared in advance.[39]
  • Livestock grazing - Grazing and watering of cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats and domestic pigs is prohibited within the confines of the park, however it still occurs in adjacent areas. The announced declaration of a buffer zone around the park in the near future should minimize this threat.
  • Feral dogs -

References

  1. ^ UNESCO, World Heritage sites, Tentative lists, Western Ghats sub cluster, Niligiris. UNESCO, World Heritage sites
  2. ^ KEECHAKA VADHAM, "Slaying of Keechaka", story from the Hindu epic Mahabharatham, retrieved 3/7/2007.Mahabharatham
  3. ^ In the court of King Virata, "Narayan's Mahabharata", p. 93, retrieved 3/9/2007Listen
  4. ^ Ullash Kumar R K (5/21/2006) "Stolen Generation - Silent Valley", retrieved 2/7/2007.Stolen Generation
  5. ^ Vinoo Krishnan (3/1/2007) Sunday Express, "Into the jungle", retrieved 3/1/2007 Into the jungle
  6. ^ Ministry of Environment and Forests, ic/wssd/doc.3, Chapter 18, "Storm over Silent Valley, A Peoples Movement Saves A Valley"A Peoples Movement
  7. ^ Surendranath C, "Silent Valley: threatened again", India Together, 13 Feb 2007 Threatened again
  8. ^ Gledhill,Laurence, AZA SSP Coordinator, Lion-tailed macaques, Woodland Park Zoological Gardens, 5500 Phinney Ave. N., Seattle, WA 98103, "Silent Valley - A Masterplan for The Indian Ex-situ Population of Lion-tailed Macaques, Macaca silenus" and "A Historical Profile of Habitat Conservation in Kerala, India", Newsletter for the Old World Monkey Taxon Advisory Group, American Zoo and Aquarium Association, Volume 3, Number 2, Winter 1996.A Historical Profile
  9. ^ Kumar, K.G.,"Silent Valley redux?" Financial Daily from The HINDU, Monday, May 24, 2004 Silent Valley redux?
  10. ^ Surendranth C. and Suchitra M., "New whispers in Silent Valley", The Hindu, Aug 01, 2004 New whispers
  11. ^ The Hindu, Nov. 17 Kerala minister of Forests: "Proposed buffer Zone to be declared soon."Proposed buffer Zone
  12. ^ Times of India, "No decision yet on Silent Valley: Antony" Feb. 23.No decision yet
  13. ^ SANKAR, ANAND, The Hindu, "Not silent anymore", 6/2/2006.film documentary
  14. ^ Unnikrishnan, P.N. (1989). Silent Valley National Park Management Plan 1990.91-99.2000. Silent Valley National Park Division, Mannarghat. Need copy
  15. ^ a b The UNEP-WCMC report dated 1991UNEP-WCMC report Cite error: The named reference "UNEP" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  16. ^ Asian Nature Conservation Foundation (2006 )NILAMBUR-SILENT VALLEY-COIMBATORE, PERSPECTIVE FOR THE RESERVE, retrieved 3/26/2007PERSPECTIVE FOR THE RESERVE
  17. ^ Suchitra M 25 July 2005, India Together, "Remote adivasis face health care chasm" Adivasis
  18. ^ palghat.net, "NATIONAL PARKS & WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES, SILENT VALLEY NATIONAL PARK"SILENT VALLEY
  19. ^ Balfour,Edward, Cyclopædia of India and of eastern and southern Asia, Vol. 3, Scottish, Lawrence and Foster Presses, Madras, 1873, p 341.Kurumbar people
  20. ^ a b Prabhakaran, G., "Plan afoot to uproot ganja from Silent Valley", The Hindu March 12, 2006.uproot ganja Cite error: The named reference "Hindu3/12/06" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  21. ^ BirdLife International 2005 World Bird Database, Version 2.0. Cambridge, UK: BirdLife International. Available: World Bird Database
  22. ^ Prabhakaran G., "New species of bird sighted in Silent Valley", The Hindu, Dec 13, 2006New species of bird
  23. ^ Ramachandran, K. K.; Joseph, Gigi, K. (2001) "Distribution and demography of in Silent Valley National Park and adjacent areas, Kerala, India", Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 98(2): 191-196 diurnal primates
  24. ^ Senthilmurugan B. "Mukurthi National Park: A migratory route for butterflies". (Aug 2005) J. Bombay. Nat. Hist. Soc. 102 (2): pp 241-242. butterflies
  25. ^ Ministry of Environment and Forests (India) (1999) State of the Environment, 5.4. Biodiversity Conservation Biodiversity Conservation
  26. ^ National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources of ICAR (India), Plant Exploration and Collection DivisionBureau of Plant Genetic Resources
  27. ^ A speech by HRH The Prince of Wales titled The Rainforest Lecture for Friends of the Earth, the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 6th February 1990. as retrieved on Feb 11, 2007 Prince of Wales Rainforest Lecture
  28. ^ DARE/ICAR ANNUAL REPORT 2002-2003DARE/ICAR ANNUAL REPORT 2002-2003
  29. ^ Manilal, K.S. (1988). Flora of Silent Valley tropical rainforests of India. The Mathrubhumi (MM) Press, Calicut. 398 pp. Need copy
  30. ^ atree.org, Projects-2Cullenia exarillata
  31. ^ Aiyar 1932
  32. ^ Joseph Gigi K. and Ramachandran K. K., Primate Conservation, 2003 (19): 78-82 "Distribution and Demography of the Nilgiri Langur (Trachypithecus johnii) in Silent Valley National Park and Adjacent Areas, Kerala, India" Demography of the Nilgiri Langur
  33. ^ Manilal, K. S.; Kandya, A. K.; Sabu, T. 1989 "A study of natural regeneration of 12 important tree species of Silent Valley tropical rain forests, Kerala, India", Journal of Tropical Forestry 5(1): 43-50, accessed 3/25/200712 important tree species
  34. ^ Gopalakrishnan C.V. (8/16/2001) "Bio-diversity facing extinction threat", The Hindu, retrieved Feb 8, 2007Selective felling
  35. ^ Kumar, M. & S. Sequiera. 1996. Impatiens sivarajanii - a new species of Balsaminaceae from Silent Valley National Park, Kerala, India. Rheedea 6:51.new species of Balsaminaceae
  36. ^ Dr. Venu V . I A S. (Director)DISTRICT HANDBOOKS OF KERALA, PALAKKAD, DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION & PUBLIC RELATIONS, GOVERNMENT OF KERALA, 2003Kattualying? tree
  37. ^ Kerala Forests & Wildlife Department, (2004) "Threats to the forests of Kerala, Forest Fires" Threats to the forests
  38. ^ K.K. Ramachandran and G.K. Joseph: "Habitat Utilization of Lion-tailed Macaque in Silent Valley National Park, Kerala, India, p.22Habitat Utilization
  39. ^ Ministry of External Affairs (India), Investment and Trade Promotion Division."Tourism Policy of Kerala"Construction activities
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Silent_Valley_National_Park&oldid=118132657"