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Page title without namespace (page_title) | 'Maqoma' |
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Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Xhosa chief}}
{{Infobox person
| honorific_prefix = Maqoma
| name = <!-- include middle initial, if not specified in birth_name --> Maqoma
| honorific_suffix =
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = [[Xhosa people|Xhosa]]
| image = <!-- just the name, without the File: or Image: prefix or enclosing [[brackets]] --> Chief Maqoma - Xhosa Wars.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Chief Maqoma
| birth_name =
| birth_date = <!-- {{Birth date and age|YYYY|MM|DD}} --> 1798
| birth_place = Xhosa Kingdom
| disappeared_date = <!-- {{Disappeared date and age|YYYY|MM|DD|YYYY|MM|DD}} (disappeared date then birth date) -->
| disappeared_place =
| disappeared_status =
| death_date = <!-- {{Death date and age|1873|MM|DD|1798|MM|DD}} (death date then birth date) --> 9 September 1873, age 75
| death_place = [[Robben Island]]
| death_cause = Old age, combined with poor treatment at [[Robben Island]]
| body_discovered =
| resting_place =
| resting_place_coordinates = <!-- {{Coord|LAT|LONG|type:landmark|display=inline}} -->
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| nationality = [[Xhosa people|Xhosa]]
| other_names =
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| alma_mater =
| occupation = Warrior, military commander
| years_active =
| employer =
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| known_for = *[[Battle of Amalinde]]
*[[Xhosa Wars|6th and 8th British-Xhosa Wars]].
| notable_works =
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| parents = Ngqika, Chief of the Rharhabe house of the Xhosa nation
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'''Jongumsobomvu Maqoma''' (c. 1798 – 9 September 1873) was a [[Xhosa people|Xhosa]] chief and a commander of the Xhosa forces during the [[Cape Frontier Wars]]. Born in the Right Hand House of the Xhosa Kingdom, he was the older brother of Chief [[Sandile kaNgqika]] and nephew to [[Hintsa kaKhawuta|King Hintsa]]. In 1818, he commanded the forces of his father, Ngqika, who seemingly was trying to overthrow the [[Hintsa kaKhawuta|government]] and become the king of the Xhosa nation. In 1822, he moved to the so-called neutral zone to take land but was expelled by the [[British people|British]] troops.<ref name="Maqoma biography">{{cite web | url=http://www.sahistory.org.za/people/chief-maqoma | title=Chief Maqoma | publisher=South African History Online | accessdate=March 7, 2013}}</ref>
==Early life==
Born on in the right hand house of the Xhosa Kingdom, Maqoma was the oldest son of Chief Ngqika. Throughout his life, he was opposed to his father's strategy of ceding land to the [[Cape Colony]]; as a result, in 1822, he went back into the Neutral Zone in order to establish his own chiefdom.
==Sixth Xhosa War==
{{Main|Xhosa Wars#Sixth war (1834-1836)}}
[[File:Eastern Frontier, Cape of Good Hope, ca 1835.png|thumb|right|250px|The Eastern Frontier, ca 1835]]
The Sixth War is known as Hintsa's War by the Xhosa. However, [[Hintsa ka Khawuta|Hintsa]] did not instigate the war and, although he gave support to the Xhosa armies which were involved, it was Chief Maqoma who was the primary leader of the Xhosa forces.
===Background===
On the Cape's eastern border (now the Keiskamma River) insecurity persisted.
Although highly unstable, the frontier region was seeing increasing amounts of cultural diversity, with Europeans, Khoikhoi and Xhosa living and trading throughout the frontier region.
===Outbreak===
The settlers accused the Xhosa of cattle raids, while the Xhosas accused the settlers of killing their chiefs. On 11 December 1834, a Cape government commando party killed a chief of high rank, incensing the Xhosa: an army of 10,000 men, led by Maqoma, swept across the frontier into the Cape Colony, pillaged and burned the homesteads and killed all who resisted. Among the worst sufferers was a colony of freed Khoikhoi who, in 1829, had been settled in the [[Kat River]] valley by the British authorities. Refugees from the farms and villages took to the safety of Grahamstown, where women and children found refugee in the church
In the cape
===British campaign===
The response was swift and multi-faceted. [[Boer commando]]s mobilised under [[Piet Retief]] and with their [[firepower]] inflicted a defeat on the Xhosa in the Winterberg Mountains in the north. Burgher and Khoi commandos also mobilised, and British Imperial troops arrived via Algoa Bay.
The British governor, [[Benjamin d'Urban|Sir Benjamin d'Urban]] mustered the combined forces under [[Harry Smith (army)|Colonel Sir Harry Smith]], who reached Grahamstown on 6 January 1835, six days after news of the attack had reached Cape Town. It was from Grahamstown that the retaliatory campaign was launched and directed.
The campaign inflicted a string of defeats on the Xhosa troops, such as at Trompetter's Drift on the Fish River, and some of the Xhosa chiefs surrendered. However Maqoma and Tyali (the other major Xhosa leader) retreated to the fastnesses of the [[Amatola Mountains]].
===The treaty===
[[Hintsa ka Khawuta]], paramount-chief of the whole Xhosa nation, commanded authority over all of the Xhosa chiefdoms hence therefore was held responsible for the initial attack on the Cape Colony, and for the looted cattle. D'Urban came to the frontier in December 1834, and led a large force across the Kei river to confront Hintsa at his residence and dictate terms to him.
The terms dictated that all the country from the Cape's prior frontier, the Keiskamma River, as far as the [[Great Kei River]] was annexed as the British "Queen Adelaide Province", and its inhabitants declared British subjects. A site for the seat of province's government was selected and named [[King William’s Town]]. The new province was declared to be for the settlement of loyal tribes, loyal soldiers who replaced their leadership, and the [[Fengu people|Fengu]] (known to the Europeans as the "Fingo people"), who had recently arrived fleeing from the Zulu armies and had been receiving protection from the Xhosa. Magistrates were appointed to administer the territory in the hope that they would gradually, with the help of missionaries, undermine tribal authority. Hostilities finally died down on 17 September 1836, after having continued for nine months.
==Eighth Xhosa War==
{{Main|Xhosa Wars#Eighth war (1850-1853)}}
[[File:CAPE MOUNTED RIFLES IN 8TH FRONTIER WAR.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Cape Mounted Riflemen]] charging the enemy at Waterkloof during the 8th Frontier War]]
===Background===
Large numbers of Xhosa were displaced across the Keiskamma by Governor Harry Smith, and these refugees supplemented the original inhabitants there, causing overpopulation and hardship. Those Xhosa who remained in the colony were moved to towns and encouraged to adopt European culture.
Harry Smith also attacked and annexed the independent [[Orange Free State]], hanging the Boer resistance leaders, and in the process alienating the Burghers of the Cape Colony. To cover the mounting expenses he then imposed exorbitant taxes on the local people of the frontier and cut the Cape's standing forces to less than five thousand men.
In June 1850 there followed an unusually cold winter, together with an extreme drought. It was at this time that Smith ordered the displacement of large numbers of Xhosa squatters from the Kat River region.
The Outbreak of War (December 1850)
Governor Sir Harry Smith travelled to meet with the prominent chiefs after unrest in the Xhosa nation. When Chief Sandile refused to attend a meeting outside Fort Cox, Governor Smith deposed him and ordered him killed. On 24 December, a British detachment of 650 men under Colonel Mackinnon was attacked by Xhosa warriors in the Boomah Pass. They retreated to Fort White, under heavy attack from the Xhosa troops, having sustained 42 casualties. The very next day, during Christmas festivities in towns throughout the border region, apparently friendly Xhosa entered the towns to partake in the festivities. At a given signal though, they fell upon the settlers who had invited them into their homes and killed them.
===Initial Xhosa victories===
While the Governor was still at Fort Cox, the Xhosa forces advanced on the colony, isolating him there. The Xhosa burned British military villages along the frontier, and captured the post at Line Drift. Meanwhile, the Khoi of the Blinkwater River Valley and Kat River Settlement revolted, under the leadership of a half-Khoi, half-Xhosa chief Hermanus Matroos, and captured [[Fort Armstrong (South Africa)|Fort Armstrong]]. Large numbers of the "Kaffir Police" — a paramilitary police force the British had established to combat cattle theft — deserted their posts and joined Xhosa war parties. For a while, it appeared that the Khoi people of the in Xhosaland were also fighting and taking up arms against the British.
Harry Smith finally fought his way out of Fort Cox with the help of the local Cape Mounted Riflemen, but found that he had alienated most of his local allies. His policies had made enemies of the Burghers and Boer Commandos, the Fengu, and the Khoi, who formed much of the Cape's local defences. Even some of the Cape Mounted Riflemen refused to fight.{{sfn|Abbink|Peires|1989|p={{Page needed|date=March 2012}}}}
===British counter-attack (Jan 1851)===
After these initial successes, however, the Xhosa experienced a series of setbacks. Xhosa forces were repulsed in separate attacks on Fort White and Fort Hare. Similarly, on 7 January, Hermanus and his Khoikhoi supporters launched an offensive on the town of [[Fort Beaufort]], which was defended by a small detachment of troops and local volunteers. The attack failed however, and Hermanus was killed. The Cape Government also eventually agreed to levy a force of local gunmen (predominantly Khoi) to hold the frontier, allowing Smith to free some imperial troops for offensive action.{{sfn|Abbink|Bruijn|Walraven|2008|p={{Page needed|date=March 2012}}}}
===Conclusion of Maqoma===
By the end of January, the British were beginning to receive reinforcements from Cape Town and a force under Colonel Mackinnon was able to successfully drive north from King William's Town to resupply the beleaguered garrisons at Fort White, Fort Cox and Fort Hare. With fresh men and supplies, the British expelled the remainder of Hermanus' rebel forces (now under the command of Willem Uithaalder) from Fort Armstrong and drove them west toward the Amatola Mountains. Over the coming months, increasing numbers of Imperial troops arrived, reinforcing the heavily outnumbered British and allowing Smith to lead sweeps across the frontier country.
In 1852, [[HMS Birkenhead (1845)|HMS Birkenhead]] was wrecked at [[Gansbaai]] while bringing reinforcements to the war at the request of [[Sir Harry Smith, 1st Baronet|Sir Harry Smith]]. As the ship sank, the men (mostly new recruits) stood silently in rank, while the women and children were loaded into the lifeboats. They remained in rank as the ship slipped under and over 300 died.
===Final stages of the conflict===
[[File:Ambush of British Column - Xhosa wars.jpg|thumb|right|A British column (74th Highlanders) under ambush in the Waterkloof forests.]]
Insurgents led by Maqoma established themselves in the forested Waterkloof. From this base they managed to plunder surrounding farms and torch the homesteads. Maqoma's stronghold was situated on Mount Misery, a natural fortress on a narrow neck wedged between the Waterkloof and Harry's Kloof. The Waterkloof conflicts lasted two years. Maqoma also killed Colonel Fort Fordyce and inflicted heavy losses on the forces of Sir Harry Smith.
In February 1852, the British Government decided that Sir Harry the feet inept rule had been responsible for much of the violence, and ordered him replaced by George Cathcart, who took charge in March. For the last 6 months, the man of foot town ordered scourings of the countryside for rebels. In February 1853, Sandile and the other chiefs surrendered.
The 8th frontier war was the most bitter and brutal in the series of Xhosa wars. It lasted over two years and ended in the complete subjugation of the Ciskei Xhosa.<ref name="History in Africa: The Memory of Maqoma">{{cite journal | title=The Memory of Maqoma | author=Stapleton, Timothy J. | journal=History in Africa | year=1993 | volume=20 | pages=321–335 | doi=10.2307/3171978| jstor=3171978 | s2cid=161590767 }}</ref>
==Imprisonment==
Maqoma was imprisoned twice at [[Robben Island]]. During the first term, he was allowed company with his wife and son. However, on the second term, at the age of seventy-three, he was sent there alone. A visiting Anglican chaplain witnessed his last moments in 1873, when he "cried bitterly, before dying of old age and dejection".<ref name="Mandela: A Biography">{{cite book | title=Mandela: A Biography | publisher=Public Affairs Books | author=Meredith, Martin | year=1997 | pages=7}}</ref>
==See also==
*[[Makana (prophet)]]
*[[Xhosa Wars]]
*[[Hintsa kaKhawuta]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Bibliography==
* {{cite book|last1=Abbink |first1=J |last2=Bruijn |first2=Mirjam de |last3=Walraven |first3=Klaas van |year=2008 |title=Rethinking Resistance: Revolt and Violence in African History |publisher =LULE|isbn=978-9004126244 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJ54bFqJtV8C}}
* {{cite book|last1=Abbink |first1=J |last2=Peires |first2=Jeffrey |year=1989 |title=The Dead Will Arise: Nongqawuse and the Great Xhosa Cattle-Killing |publisher=LULE|isbn=9780253205247 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xrey5fkzMkwC}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Maqoma}}
[[Category:Xhosa people]]
[[Category:African warriors]]
[[Category:1873 deaths]]
[[Category:1790s births]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Xhosa chief}}
{{Infobox person
| honorific_prefix = Maqoma
| name = <!-- include middle initial, if not specified in birth_name --> Maqoma
| honorific_suffix =
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = [[Xhosa people|Xhosa]]
| image = <!-- just the name, without the File: or Image: prefix or enclosing [[brackets]] --> Chief Maqoma - Xhosa Wars.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Chief Maqoma
| birth_name =
| birth_date = <!-- {{Birth date and age|YYYY|MM|DD}} --> 1798
| birth_place = Xhosa Kingdom
| disappeared_date = <!-- {{Disappeared date and age|YYYY|MM|DD|YYYY|MM|DD}} (disappeared date then birth date) -->
| disappeared_place =
| disappeared_status =
| death_date = <!-- {{Death date and age|1873|MM|DD|1798|MM|DD}} (death date then birth date) --> 9 September 1873, age 75
| death_place = [[Robben Island]]
| death_cause = Old age, combined with poor treatment at [[Robben Island]]
| body_discovered =
| resting_place =
| resting_place_coordinates = <!-- {{Coord|LAT|LONG|type:landmark|display=inline}} -->
| monuments =
| nationality = [[Xhosa people|Xhosa]]
| other_names =
| citizenship =
| education =
| alma_mater =
| occupation = Warrior, military commander
| years_active =
| employer =
| organization =
| known_for = *[[Battle of Amalinde]]
*[[Xhosa Wars|6th and 8th British-Xhosa Wars]].
| notable_works =
| style =
| height = <!-- {{height|m=}} -->
| television =
| title =
| term =
| predecessor =
| successor =
| party =
| movement =
| opponents =
| boards =
| criminal_charge = <!-- Criminality parameters should be supported with citations from reliable sources -->
| criminal_penalty =
| criminal_status =
| spouse =
| partner = <!-- unmarried life partner; use ''Name (1950–present)'' -->
| children =
| parents = Ngqika, Chief of the Rharhabe house of the Xhosa nation
| relatives =
| callsign =
| awards =
| signature =
| signature_alt =
| signature_size =
| module =
| module2 =
| module3 =
| module4 =
| module5 =
| module6 =
| website = <!-- {{URL|Example.com}} -->
| footnotes =
}}
'''Jongumsobomvu Maqoma''' (c. 1798 – 9 September 1873) was a [[Xhosa people|Xhosa]] chief and a commander of the Xhosa forces during the [[Cape Frontier Wars]]. Born in the Right Hand House of the Xhosa Kingdom, he was the older brother of Chief [[Sandile kaNgqika]] and nephew to [[Hintsa kaKhawuta|King Hintsa]]. In 1818, he commanded the forces of his father, Ngqika, who seemingly was trying to overthrow the [[Hintsa kaKhawuta|government]] and become the king of the Xhosa nation. In 1822, he moved to the so-called neutral zone to take land but was expelled by the [[British people|British]] troops.<ref name="Maqoma biography">{{cite web | url=http://www.sahistory.org.za/people/chief-maqoma | title=Chief Maqoma | publisher=South African History Online | accessdate=March 7, 2013}}</ref>
==Early life==
Born on in the right hand house of the Xhosa Kingdom, Maqoma was the oldest son of Chief Ngqika. Throughout his life, he was opposed to his father's strategy of ceding land to the [[Cape Colony]]; as a result, in 1822, he went back into the Neutral Zone in order to establish his own chiefdom.
==Sixth Xhosa War==
{{Main|Xhosa Wars#Sixth war (1834-1836)}}
[[File:Eastern Frontier, Cape of Good Hope, ca 1835.png|thumb|right|250px|The Eastern Frontier, ca 1835]]
The Sixth War is known as Hintsa's War by the Xhosa. However, [[Hintsa ka Khawuta|Hintsa]] did not instigate the war and, although he gave support to the Xhosa armies which were involved, it was Chief Maqoma who was the primary leader of the Xhosa forces.
===Background===
On the Cape's eastern border (now the Keiskamma River) insecurity persisted.
Although highly unstable, the frontier region was seeing increasing amounts of cultural diversity, with Europeans, Khoikhoi and Xhosa living and trading throughout the frontier region.
===Outbreak===
The settlers accused the Xhosa of cattle raids, while the Xhosas accused the settlers of killing their chiefs. On 11 December 1834, a Cape government commando party killed a chief of high rank, incensing the Xhosa: an army of 10,000 men, led by Maqoma, swept across the frontier into the Cape Colony, pillaged and burned the homesteads and killed all who resisted. Among the worst sufferers was a colony of freed Khoikhoi who, in 1829, had been settled in the [[Kat River]] valley by the British authorities. Refugees from the farms and villages took to the safety of Grahamstown, where women and children found refugee in the church
In the cape
===British campaign===
The response was swift and multi-faceted. [[Boer commando]]s mobilised under [[Piet Retief]] and with their [[firepower]] inflicted a defeat on the Xhosa in the Winterberg Mountains in the north. Burgher and Khoi commandos also mobilised, and British Imperial troops arrived via Algoa Bay.
The British governor, [[Benjamin d'Urban|Sir Benjamin d'Urban]] mustered the combined forces under [[Harry Smith (army)|Colonel Sir Harry Smith]], who reached Grahamstown on 6 January 1835, six days after news of the attack had reached Cape Town. It was from Grahamstown that the retaliatory campaign was launched and directed.
The campaign inflicted a string of defeats on the Xhosa troops, such as at Trompetter's Drift on the Fish River, and some of the Xhosa chiefs surrendered. However Maqoma and Tyali (the other major Xhosa leader) retreated to the fastnesses of the [[Amatola Mountains]].
===The treaty===
[[Hintsa ka Khawuta]], paramount-chief of the whole Xhosa nation, commanded authority over all of the Xhosa chiefdoms hence therefore was held responsible for the initial attack on the Cape Colony, and for the looted cattle. D'Urban came to the frontier in December 1834, and led a large force across the Kei river to confront Hintsa at his residence and dictate terms to him.
The terms dictated that all the country from the Cape's prior frontier, the Keiskamma River, as far as the [[Great Kei River]] was annexed as the British "Queen Adelaide Province", and its inhabitants declared British subjects. A site for the seat of province's government was selected and named [[King William’s Town]]. The new province was declared to be for the settlement of loyal tribes, loyal soldiers who replaced their leadership, and the [[Fengu people|Fengu]] (known to the Europeans as the "Fingo people"), who had recently arrived fleeing from the Zulu armies and had been receiving protection from the Xhosa. Magistrates were appointed to administer the territory in the hope that they would gradually, with the help of missionaries, undermine tribal authority. Hostilities finally died down on 17 September 1836, after having continued for nine months.
==Eighth Xhosa War==
{{Main|Xhosa Wars#Eighth war (1850-1853)}}
[[File:CAPE MOUNTED RIFLES IN 8TH FRONTIER WAR.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Cape Mounted Riflemen]] charging the enemy at Waterkloof during the 8th Frontier War]]
===Background===
Large numbers of Xhosa were displaced across the Keiskamma by Governor Harry Smith, and these refugees supplemented the original inhabitants there, causing overpopulation and hardship. Those Xhosa who remained in the colony were moved to towns and encouraged to adopt European culture.
Harry Smith also attacked and annexed the independent [[Orange Free State]], hanging the Boer resistance leaders, and in the process alienating the Burghers of the Cape Colony. To cover the mounting expenses he then imposed exorbitant taxes on the local people of the frontier and cut the Cape's standing forces to less than five thousand men.
In June 1850 there followed an unusually cold winter, together with an extreme drought. It was at this time that Smith ordered the displacement of large numbers of Xhosa squatters from the Kat River region.
The Outbreak of War (December 1850)
Governor Sir Harry Smith travelled to meet with the prominent chiefs after unrest in the Xhosa nation. When Chief Sandile refused to attend a meeting outside Fort Cox, Governor Smith deposed him and ordered him killed. On 24 December, a British detachment of 650 men under Colonel Mackinnon was attacked by Xhosa warriors in the Boomah Pass. They retreated to Fort White, under heavy attack from the Xhosa troops, having sustained 42 casualties. The very next day, during Christmas festivities in towns throughout the border region, apparently friendly Xhosa entered the towns to partake in the festivities. At a given signal though, they fell upon the settlers who had invited them into their homes and killed them.
===Initial Xhosa victories===
While the Governor was still at Fort Cox, the Xhosa forces advanced on the colony, isolating him there. The Xhosa burned British military villages along the frontier, and captured the post at Line Drift. Meanwhile, the Khoi of the Blinkwater River Valley and Kat River Settlement revolted, under the leadership of a half-Khoi, half-Xhosa chief Hermanus Matroos, and captured [[Fort Armstrong (South Africa)|Fort Armstrong]]. Large numbers of the "Kaffir Police" — a paramilitary police force the British had established to combat cattle theft — deserted their posts and joined Xhosa war parties. For a while, it appeared that the Khoi people of the in Xhosaland were also fighting and taking up arms against the British.
Harry Smith finally fought his way out of Fort Cox with the help of the local Cape Mounted Riflemen, but found that he had alienated most of his local allies. His policies had made enemies of the Burghers and Boer Commandos, the Fengu, and the Khoi, who formed much of the Cape's local defences. Even some of the Cape Mounted Riflemen refused to fight.{{sfn|Abbink|Peires|1989|p={{Page needed|date=March 2012}}}}
===British counter-attack (Jan 1851)===
After these initial successes, however, the Xhosa experienced a series of setbacks. Xhosa forces were repulsed in separate attacks on Fort White and Fort Hare. Similarly, on 7 January, Hermanus and his Khoikhoi supporters launched an offensive on the town of [[Fort Beaufort]], which was defended by a small detachment of troops and local volunteers. The attack failed however, and Hermanus was killed. The Cape Government also eventually agreed to levy a force of local gunmen (predominantly Khoi) to hold the frontier, allowing Smith to free some imperial troops for offensive action.{{sfn|Abbink|Bruijn|Walraven|2008|p={{Page needed|date=March 2012}}}}
===Conclusion of Maqoma===
By the end of January, the British were beginning to receive reinforcements from Cape Town and a force under Colonel Mackinnon was able to successfully drive north from King William's Town to resupply the beleaguered garrisons at Fort White, Fort Cox and Fort Hare. With fresh men and supplies, the British expelled the remainder of Hermanus' rebel forces (now under the command of Willem Uithaalder) from Fort Armstrong and drove them west toward the Amatola Mountains. Over the coming months, increasing numbers of Imperial troops arrived, reinforcing the heavily outnumbered British and allowing Smith to lead sweeps across the frontier country.
In 1852, [[HMS Birkenhead (1845)|HMS Birkenhead]] was wrecked at [[Gansbaai]] while bringing reinforcements to the war at the request of [[Sir Harry Smith, 1st Baronet|Sir Harry Smith]]. As the ship sank, the men (mostly new recruits) stood silently in rank, while the women and children were loaded into the lifeboats. They remained in rank as the ship slipped under and over 300 died.
===Final stages of the conflict===
[[File:Ambush of British Column - Xhosa wars.jpg|thumb|right|A British column (74th Highlanders) under ambush in the Waterkloof forests.]]
Insurgents led by Maqoma established themselves in the forested Waterkloof. From this base they managed to plunder surrounding farms and torch the homesteads. Maqoma's stronghold was situated on Mount Misery, a natural fortress on a narrow neck wedged between the Waterkloof and Harry's Kloof. The Waterkloof conflicts lasted two years. Maqoma also killed Colonel Fort Fordyce and inflicted heavy losses on the forces of Sir Harry Smith.
In February 1852, the British Government decided that Sir Harry the feet inept rule had been responsible for much of the violence, and ordered him replaced by George Cathcart, who took charge in March. For the last 6 months, the man of foot town ordered scourings of the countryside for rebels. In February 1853, Sandile and the other chiefs surrendered.
The 8th frontier war was the most bitter and brutal in the series of Xhosa wars. It lasted over two years and ended in the complete subjugation of the Ciskei Xhosa.<ref name="History in Africa: The Memory of Maqoma">{{cite journal | title=The Memory of Maqoma | author=Stapleton, Timothy J. | journal=History in Africa | year=1993 | volume=20 | pages=321–335 | doi=10.2307/3171978| jstor=3171978 | s2cid=161590767 }}</ref>
==Imprisonment==
Maqoma was imprisoned twice at [[Robben Island]]. During the first term, he was allowed company with his wife and son. However, on the second term, at the age of seventy-three, he was sent there alone. A visiting Anglican chaplain witnessed his last moments in 1873, when he "cried bitterly, before dying of old age and dejection".<ref name="Mandela: A Biography">{{cite book | title=Mandela: A Biography | publisher=Public Affairs Books | author=Meredith, Martin | year=1997 | pages=7}}</ref>
==See also==
*[[Makana (prophet)]]
*[[Xhosa Wars]]
*[[Hintsa kaKhawuta]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
Hi' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -144,13 +144,3 @@
==References==
{{Reflist}}
-==Bibliography==
-* {{cite book|last1=Abbink |first1=J |last2=Bruijn |first2=Mirjam de |last3=Walraven |first3=Klaas van |year=2008 |title=Rethinking Resistance: Revolt and Violence in African History |publisher =LULE|isbn=978-9004126244 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJ54bFqJtV8C}}
-* {{cite book|last1=Abbink |first1=J |last2=Peires |first2=Jeffrey |year=1989 |title=The Dead Will Arise: Nongqawuse and the Great Xhosa Cattle-Killing |publisher=LULE|isbn=9780253205247 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xrey5fkzMkwC}}
-
-{{Authority control}}
-
-{{DEFAULTSORT:Maqoma}}
-[[Category:Xhosa people]]
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Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Xhosa chief</div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237879389">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-header,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-subheader,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-above,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-title,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-image,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-below{text-align:center}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="honorific-prefix" style="font-size: 77%; font-weight: normal;">Maqoma</div><div class="fn">Maqoma</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL0ZpbGU6Q2hpZWZfTWFxb21hXy1fWGhvc2FfV2Fycy5qcGc" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL3VwbG9hZC53aWtpbWVkaWEub3JnL3dpa2lwZWRpYS9jb21tb25zLzEvMWEvQ2hpZWZfTWFxb21hXy1fWGhvc2FfV2Fycy5qcGc" decoding="async" width="150" height="220" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="150" data-file-height="220" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Chief Maqoma</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">1798<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace">Xhosa Kingdom</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">9 September 1873, age 75<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL1JvYmJlbl9Jc2xhbmQ" title="Robben Island">Robben Island</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Cause of death</th><td class="infobox-data">Old age, combined with poor treatment at <a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL1JvYmJlbl9Jc2xhbmQ" title="Robben Island">Robben Island</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Nationality</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL1hob3NhX3Blb3BsZQ" title="Xhosa people">Xhosa</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Occupation(s)</th><td class="infobox-data role">Warrior, military commander</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data">
<ul><li><a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL0JhdHRsZV9vZl9BbWFsaW5kZQ" title="Battle of Amalinde">Battle of Amalinde</a></li>
<li><a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL1hob3NhX1dhcnM" title="Xhosa Wars">6th and 8th British-Xhosa Wars</a>.</li></ul>
</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Parent(s)</th><td class="infobox-data">Ngqika, Chief of the Rharhabe house of the Xhosa nation</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Jongumsobomvu Maqoma</b> (c. 1798 – 9 September 1873) was a <a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL1hob3NhX3Blb3BsZQ" title="Xhosa people">Xhosa</a> chief and a commander of the Xhosa forces during the <a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL0NhcGVfRnJvbnRpZXJfV2Fycw" class="mw-redirect" title="Cape Frontier Wars">Cape Frontier Wars</a>. Born in the Right Hand House of the Xhosa Kingdom, he was the older brother of Chief <a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL1NhbmRpbGVfa2FOZ3Fpa2E" title="Sandile kaNgqika">Sandile kaNgqika</a> and nephew to <a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL0hpbnRzYV9rYUtoYXd1dGE" title="Hintsa kaKhawuta">King Hintsa</a>. In 1818, he commanded the forces of his father, Ngqika, who seemingly was trying to overthrow the <a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL0hpbnRzYV9rYUtoYXd1dGE" title="Hintsa kaKhawuta">government</a> and become the king of the Xhosa nation. In 1822, he moved to the so-called neutral zone to take land but was expelled by the <a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL0JyaXRpc2hfcGVvcGxl" title="British people">British</a> troops.<sup id="cite_ref-Maqoma_biography_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maqoma_biography-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Early_life"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Early life</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Sixth_Xhosa_War"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Sixth Xhosa War</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Background"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Background</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Outbreak"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Outbreak</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#British_campaign"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">British campaign</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#The_treaty"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">The treaty</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Eighth_Xhosa_War"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Eighth Xhosa War</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Background_2"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Background</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Initial_Xhosa_victories"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Initial Xhosa victories</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#British_counter-attack_(Jan_1851)"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">British counter-attack (Jan 1851)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Conclusion_of_Maqoma"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Conclusion of Maqoma</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Final_stages_of_the_conflict"><span class="tocnumber">3.5</span> <span class="toctext">Final stages of the conflict</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Imprisonment"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Imprisonment</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Born on in the right hand house of the Xhosa Kingdom, Maqoma was the oldest son of Chief Ngqika. Throughout his life, he was opposed to his father's strategy of ceding land to the <a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL0NhcGVfQ29sb255" title="Cape Colony">Cape Colony</a>; as a result, in 1822, he went back into the Neutral Zone in order to establish his own chiefdom.
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sixth_Xhosa_War">Sixth Xhosa War</h2><span class="mw-editsection">
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<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL1hob3NhX1dhcnMjU2l4dGhfd2FyXygxODM0LTE4MzYp" title="Xhosa Wars">Xhosa Wars § Sixth war (1834-1836)</a></div>
<figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL0ZpbGU6RWFzdGVybl9Gcm9udGllcixfQ2FwZV9vZl9Hb29kX0hvcGUsX2NhXzE4MzUucG5n" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL3VwbG9hZC53aWtpbWVkaWEub3JnL3dpa2lwZWRpYS9jb21tb25zL3RodW1iL2YvZjkvRWFzdGVybl9Gcm9udGllciUyQ19DYXBlX29mX0dvb2RfSG9wZSUyQ19jYV8xODM1LnBuZy8yNTBweC1FYXN0ZXJuX0Zyb250aWVyJTJDX0NhcGVfb2ZfR29vZF9Ib3BlJTJDX2NhXzE4MzUucG5n" decoding="async" width="250" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Eastern_Frontier%2C_Cape_of_Good_Hope%2C_ca_1835.png/375px-Eastern_Frontier%2C_Cape_of_Good_Hope%2C_ca_1835.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Eastern_Frontier%2C_Cape_of_Good_Hope%2C_ca_1835.png/500px-Eastern_Frontier%2C_Cape_of_Good_Hope%2C_ca_1835.png 2x" data-file-width="836" data-file-height="733" /></a><figcaption>The Eastern Frontier, ca 1835</figcaption></figure>
<p>The Sixth War is known as Hintsa's War by the Xhosa. However, <a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL0hpbnRzYV9rYV9LaGF3dXRh" class="mw-redirect" title="Hintsa ka Khawuta">Hintsa</a> did not instigate the war and, although he gave support to the Xhosa armies which were involved, it was Chief Maqoma who was the primary leader of the Xhosa forces.
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background">Background</h3><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>On the Cape's eastern border (now the Keiskamma River) insecurity persisted.
Although highly unstable, the frontier region was seeing increasing amounts of cultural diversity, with Europeans, Khoikhoi and Xhosa living and trading throughout the frontier region.
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Outbreak">Outbreak</h3><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>The settlers accused the Xhosa of cattle raids, while the Xhosas accused the settlers of killing their chiefs. On 11 December 1834, a Cape government commando party killed a chief of high rank, incensing the Xhosa: an army of 10,000 men, led by Maqoma, swept across the frontier into the Cape Colony, pillaged and burned the homesteads and killed all who resisted. Among the worst sufferers was a colony of freed Khoikhoi who, in 1829, had been settled in the <a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL0thdF9SaXZlcg" title="Kat River">Kat River</a> valley by the British authorities. Refugees from the farms and villages took to the safety of Grahamstown, where women and children found refugee in the church
In the cape
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_campaign">British campaign</h3><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>The response was swift and multi-faceted. <a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL0JvZXJfY29tbWFuZG8" title="Boer commando">Boer commandos</a> mobilised under <a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL1BpZXRfUmV0aWVm" title="Piet Retief">Piet Retief</a> and with their <a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL0ZpcmVwb3dlcg" title="Firepower">firepower</a> inflicted a defeat on the Xhosa in the Winterberg Mountains in the north. Burgher and Khoi commandos also mobilised, and British Imperial troops arrived via Algoa Bay.
</p><p>The British governor, <a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL0JlbmphbWluX2QlMjdVcmJhbg" class="mw-redirect" title="Benjamin d'Urban">Sir Benjamin d'Urban</a> mustered the combined forces under <a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL0hhcnJ5X1NtaXRoXyhhcm15KQ" class="mw-redirect" title="Harry Smith (army)">Colonel Sir Harry Smith</a>, who reached Grahamstown on 6 January 1835, six days after news of the attack had reached Cape Town. It was from Grahamstown that the retaliatory campaign was launched and directed.
</p><p>The campaign inflicted a string of defeats on the Xhosa troops, such as at Trompetter's Drift on the Fish River, and some of the Xhosa chiefs surrendered. However Maqoma and Tyali (the other major Xhosa leader) retreated to the fastnesses of the <a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL0FtYXRvbGFfTW91bnRhaW5z" class="mw-redirect" title="Amatola Mountains">Amatola Mountains</a>.
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_treaty">The treaty</h3><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p><a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL0hpbnRzYV9rYV9LaGF3dXRh" class="mw-redirect" title="Hintsa ka Khawuta">Hintsa ka Khawuta</a>, paramount-chief of the whole Xhosa nation, commanded authority over all of the Xhosa chiefdoms hence therefore was held responsible for the initial attack on the Cape Colony, and for the looted cattle. D'Urban came to the frontier in December 1834, and led a large force across the Kei river to confront Hintsa at his residence and dictate terms to him.
</p><p>The terms dictated that all the country from the Cape's prior frontier, the Keiskamma River, as far as the <a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL0dyZWF0X0tlaV9SaXZlcg" title="Great Kei River">Great Kei River</a> was annexed as the British "Queen Adelaide Province", and its inhabitants declared British subjects. A site for the seat of province's government was selected and named <a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL0tpbmdfV2lsbGlhbSVFMiU4MCU5OXNfVG93bg" class="mw-redirect" title="King William’s Town">King William’s Town</a>. The new province was declared to be for the settlement of loyal tribes, loyal soldiers who replaced their leadership, and the <a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL0Zlbmd1X3Blb3BsZQ" title="Fengu people">Fengu</a> (known to the Europeans as the "Fingo people"), who had recently arrived fleeing from the Zulu armies and had been receiving protection from the Xhosa. Magistrates were appointed to administer the territory in the hope that they would gradually, with the help of missionaries, undermine tribal authority. Hostilities finally died down on 17 September 1836, after having continued for nine months.
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Eighth_Xhosa_War">Eighth Xhosa War</h2><span class="mw-editsection">
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL1hob3NhX1dhcnMjRWlnaHRoX3dhcl8oMTg1MC0xODUzKQ" title="Xhosa Wars">Xhosa Wars § Eighth war (1850-1853)</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL0ZpbGU6Q0FQRV9NT1VOVEVEX1JJRkxFU19JTl84VEhfRlJPTlRJRVJfV0FSLmpwZw" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL3VwbG9hZC53aWtpbWVkaWEub3JnL3dpa2lwZWRpYS9jb21tb25zL3RodW1iLzMvMzkvQ0FQRV9NT1VOVEVEX1JJRkxFU19JTl84VEhfRlJPTlRJRVJfV0FSLmpwZy8yMjBweC1DQVBFX01PVU5URURfUklGTEVTX0lOXzhUSF9GUk9OVElFUl9XQVIuanBn" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/CAPE_MOUNTED_RIFLES_IN_8TH_FRONTIER_WAR.jpg/330px-CAPE_MOUNTED_RIFLES_IN_8TH_FRONTIER_WAR.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/CAPE_MOUNTED_RIFLES_IN_8TH_FRONTIER_WAR.jpg/440px-CAPE_MOUNTED_RIFLES_IN_8TH_FRONTIER_WAR.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1084" data-file-height="693" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL0NhcGVfTW91bnRlZF9SaWZsZW1lbg" title="Cape Mounted Riflemen">Cape Mounted Riflemen</a> charging the enemy at Waterkloof during the 8th Frontier War</figcaption></figure>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background_2">Background</h3><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Large numbers of Xhosa were displaced across the Keiskamma by Governor Harry Smith, and these refugees supplemented the original inhabitants there, causing overpopulation and hardship. Those Xhosa who remained in the colony were moved to towns and encouraged to adopt European culture.
</p><p>Harry Smith also attacked and annexed the independent <a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL09yYW5nZV9GcmVlX1N0YXRl" title="Orange Free State">Orange Free State</a>, hanging the Boer resistance leaders, and in the process alienating the Burghers of the Cape Colony. To cover the mounting expenses he then imposed exorbitant taxes on the local people of the frontier and cut the Cape's standing forces to less than five thousand men.
</p><p>In June 1850 there followed an unusually cold winter, together with an extreme drought. It was at this time that Smith ordered the displacement of large numbers of Xhosa squatters from the Kat River region.
</p><p>The Outbreak of War (December 1850)
Governor Sir Harry Smith travelled to meet with the prominent chiefs after unrest in the Xhosa nation. When Chief Sandile refused to attend a meeting outside Fort Cox, Governor Smith deposed him and ordered him killed. On 24 December, a British detachment of 650 men under Colonel Mackinnon was attacked by Xhosa warriors in the Boomah Pass. They retreated to Fort White, under heavy attack from the Xhosa troops, having sustained 42 casualties. The very next day, during Christmas festivities in towns throughout the border region, apparently friendly Xhosa entered the towns to partake in the festivities. At a given signal though, they fell upon the settlers who had invited them into their homes and killed them.
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Initial_Xhosa_victories">Initial Xhosa victories</h3><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>While the Governor was still at Fort Cox, the Xhosa forces advanced on the colony, isolating him there. The Xhosa burned British military villages along the frontier, and captured the post at Line Drift. Meanwhile, the Khoi of the Blinkwater River Valley and Kat River Settlement revolted, under the leadership of a half-Khoi, half-Xhosa chief Hermanus Matroos, and captured <a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93L2luZGV4LnBocD90aXRsZT1Gb3J0X0FybXN0cm9uZ18oU291dGhfQWZyaWNhKSZhbXA7YW1wO2FjdGlvbj1lZGl0JmFtcDthbXA7cmVkbGluaz0x" class="new" title="Fort Armstrong (South Africa) (page does not exist)">Fort Armstrong</a>. Large numbers of the "Kaffir Police" — a paramilitary police force the British had established to combat cattle theft — deserted their posts and joined Xhosa war parties. For a while, it appeared that the Khoi people of the in Xhosaland were also fighting and taking up arms against the British.
</p><p>Harry Smith finally fought his way out of Fort Cox with the help of the local Cape Mounted Riflemen, but found that he had alienated most of his local allies. His policies had made enemies of the Burghers and Boer Commandos, the Fengu, and the Khoi, who formed much of the Cape's local defences. Even some of the Cape Mounted Riflemen refused to fight.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbinkPeires1989[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_March_2012]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(March_2012)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbinkPeires1989[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_March_2012]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(March_2012)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_counter-attack_(Jan_1851)"><span id="British_counter-attack_.28Jan_1851.29"></span>British counter-attack (Jan 1851)</h3><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>After these initial successes, however, the Xhosa experienced a series of setbacks. Xhosa forces were repulsed in separate attacks on Fort White and Fort Hare. Similarly, on 7 January, Hermanus and his Khoikhoi supporters launched an offensive on the town of <a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL0ZvcnRfQmVhdWZvcnQ" title="Fort Beaufort">Fort Beaufort</a>, which was defended by a small detachment of troops and local volunteers. The attack failed however, and Hermanus was killed. The Cape Government also eventually agreed to levy a force of local gunmen (predominantly Khoi) to hold the frontier, allowing Smith to free some imperial troops for offensive action.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbinkBruijnWalraven2008[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_March_2012]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(March_2012)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbinkBruijnWalraven2008[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_March_2012]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(March_2012)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conclusion_of_Maqoma">Conclusion of Maqoma</h3><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>By the end of January, the British were beginning to receive reinforcements from Cape Town and a force under Colonel Mackinnon was able to successfully drive north from King William's Town to resupply the beleaguered garrisons at Fort White, Fort Cox and Fort Hare. With fresh men and supplies, the British expelled the remainder of Hermanus' rebel forces (now under the command of Willem Uithaalder) from Fort Armstrong and drove them west toward the Amatola Mountains. Over the coming months, increasing numbers of Imperial troops arrived, reinforcing the heavily outnumbered British and allowing Smith to lead sweeps across the frontier country.
</p><p>In 1852, <a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL0hNU19CaXJrZW5oZWFkXygxODQ1KQ" title="HMS Birkenhead (1845)">HMS Birkenhead</a> was wrecked at <a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL0dhbnNiYWFp" title="Gansbaai">Gansbaai</a> while bringing reinforcements to the war at the request of <a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL1Npcl9IYXJyeV9TbWl0aCxfMXN0X0Jhcm9uZXQ" title="Sir Harry Smith, 1st Baronet">Sir Harry Smith</a>. As the ship sank, the men (mostly new recruits) stood silently in rank, while the women and children were loaded into the lifeboats. They remained in rank as the ship slipped under and over 300 died.
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Final_stages_of_the_conflict">Final stages of the conflict</h3><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL0ZpbGU6QW1idXNoX29mX0JyaXRpc2hfQ29sdW1uXy1fWGhvc2Ffd2Fycy5qcGc" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL3VwbG9hZC53aWtpbWVkaWEub3JnL3dpa2lwZWRpYS9jb21tb25zL3RodW1iL2IvYjYvQW1idXNoX29mX0JyaXRpc2hfQ29sdW1uXy1fWGhvc2Ffd2Fycy5qcGcvMjIwcHgtQW1idXNoX29mX0JyaXRpc2hfQ29sdW1uXy1fWGhvc2Ffd2Fycy5qcGc" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Ambush_of_British_Column_-_Xhosa_wars.jpg/330px-Ambush_of_British_Column_-_Xhosa_wars.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Ambush_of_British_Column_-_Xhosa_wars.jpg 2x" data-file-width="387" data-file-height="380" /></a><figcaption>A British column (74th Highlanders) under ambush in the Waterkloof forests.</figcaption></figure>
<p>Insurgents led by Maqoma established themselves in the forested Waterkloof. From this base they managed to plunder surrounding farms and torch the homesteads. Maqoma's stronghold was situated on Mount Misery, a natural fortress on a narrow neck wedged between the Waterkloof and Harry's Kloof. The Waterkloof conflicts lasted two years. Maqoma also killed Colonel Fort Fordyce and inflicted heavy losses on the forces of Sir Harry Smith.
</p><p>In February 1852, the British Government decided that Sir Harry the feet inept rule had been responsible for much of the violence, and ordered him replaced by George Cathcart, who took charge in March. For the last 6 months, the man of foot town ordered scourings of the countryside for rebels. In February 1853, Sandile and the other chiefs surrendered.
</p><p>The 8th frontier war was the most bitter and brutal in the series of Xhosa wars. It lasted over two years and ended in the complete subjugation of the Ciskei Xhosa.<sup id="cite_ref-History_in_Africa:_The_Memory_of_Maqoma_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History_in_Africa:_The_Memory_of_Maqoma-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Imprisonment">Imprisonment</h2><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Maqoma was imprisoned twice at <a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL1JvYmJlbl9Jc2xhbmQ" title="Robben Island">Robben Island</a>. During the first term, he was allowed company with his wife and son. However, on the second term, at the age of seventy-three, he was sent there alone. A visiting Anglican chaplain witnessed his last moments in 1873, when he "cried bitterly, before dying of old age and dejection".<sup id="cite_ref-Mandela:_A_Biography_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mandela:_A_Biography-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection">
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<ul><li><a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL01ha2FuYV8ocHJvcGhldCk" class="mw-redirect" title="Makana (prophet)">Makana (prophet)</a></li>
<li><a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL1hob3NhX1dhcnM" title="Xhosa Wars">Xhosa Wars</a></li>
<li><a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL0hpbnRzYV9rYUtoYXd1dGE" title="Hintsa kaKhawuta">Hintsa kaKhawuta</a></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection">
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<li id="cite_note-Maqoma_biography-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Maqoma_biography_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL3d3dy5zYWhpc3Rvcnkub3JnLnphL3Blb3BsZS9jaGllZi1tYXFvbWE">"Chief Maqoma"</a>. South African History Online<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 7,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chief+Maqoma&rft.pub=South+African+History+Online&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sahistory.org.za%2Fpeople%2Fchief-maqoma&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaqoma" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbinkPeires1989[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_March_2012]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(March_2012)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbinkPeires1989[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_March_2012]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(March_2012)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbbinkPeires1989">Abbink & Peires 1989</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL1dpa2lwZWRpYTpDaXRpbmdfc291cmNlcw" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (March 2012)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFAbbinkPeires1989 (<a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL0NhdGVnb3J5OkhhcnZfYW5kX1Nmbl90ZW1wbGF0ZV9lcnJvcnM" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbinkBruijnWalraven2008[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_March_2012]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(March_2012)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbinkBruijnWalraven2008[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_March_2012]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(March_2012)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbbinkBruijnWalraven2008">Abbink, Bruijn & Walraven 2008</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL1dpa2lwZWRpYTpDaXRpbmdfc291cmNlcw" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (March 2012)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFAbbinkBruijnWalraven2008 (<a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL0NhdGVnb3J5OkhhcnZfYW5kX1Nmbl90ZW1wbGF0ZV9lcnJvcnM" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-History_in_Africa:_The_Memory_of_Maqoma-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-History_in_Africa:_The_Memory_of_Maqoma_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStapleton,_Timothy_J.1993" class="citation journal cs1">Stapleton, Timothy J. (1993). "The Memory of Maqoma". <i>History in Africa</i>. <b>20</b>: 321–335. <a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL0RvaV8oaWRlbnRpZmllcik" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cHM6Ly9kb2kub3JnLzEwLjIzMDclMkYzMTcxOTc4">10.2307/3171978</a>. <a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL0pTVE9SXyhpZGVudGlmaWVyKQ" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuanN0b3Iub3JnL3N0YWJsZS8zMTcxOTc4">3171978</a>. <a href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cDovL2VuLm0ud2lraXBlZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpL1MyQ0lEXyhpZGVudGlmaWVyKQ" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/load/view.php?a=aHR0cHM6Ly9hcGkuc2VtYW50aWNzY2hvbGFyLm9yZy9Db3JwdXNJRDoxNjE1OTA3Njc">161590767</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+in+Africa&rft.atitle=The+Memory+of+Maqoma&rft.volume=20&rft.pages=321-335&rft.date=1993&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161590767%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3171978%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3171978&rft.au=Stapleton%2C+Timothy+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaqoma" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Mandela:_A_Biography-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mandela:_A_Biography_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeredith,_Martin1997" class="citation book cs1">Meredith, Martin (1997). <i>Mandela: A Biography</i>. Public Affairs Books. p. 7.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mandela%3A+A+Biography&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Public+Affairs+Books&rft.date=1997&rft.au=Meredith%2C+Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaqoma" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<p>Hi
</p></div>' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | '1729610444' |